CTESS ebook

time on task is something that teachers have control over, whereas student IQ is not. Behavioral and school psychologists measure student time on task with partial interval recording; at the end of a small interval of time (such as 20 seconds) the observer rates whether or not a given student is on task. Oftentimes a student of interest might be compared to other students in the same classroom through alternate coding. This has become a standard way of determining whether an individual student has attention difficulties (such as from ADHD) or if a classroom might not be optimally managed. CTESS uses a similar strategy with regard to whether or not that student is actively engaged, passively engaged, off task, or in down- time. Benchmarks for student time-on-task and active engagement were derived from local CSD and national norms (Scott et al., 2011). Opportunities to Respond (OTR) are “curriculum -related prompts that the teacher provides to either the group or an individual student” to provide the means for students to show what they know by saying, writing, or doing (Scott et al., 2011). OTRs: • Give students a chance to practice skills • Make student thinking visible so that both teachers and students can assess learning and make instructional adjustments in real time • Keep students engaged in appropriate behaviors so that they are unable to engage in misbehavior OTRs are an evidence-based practice associated with increased achievement and decreased behavior problems. (Brophy & Good, 1986; Haydon, Mancil, & Van Loan, 2009; Kern & Clemens, 2007; Partin, Robertson, Maggin, Oliver, & Wehby, 2010; Sutherland & Wehby, 2001). Recommended optimal OTR rates from research are at or above three responses per minute (180 per hour) (Haydon et al., 2009; Partin et al., 2010; Sutherland, Alder, & Gunter, 2003). The high rates suggested by currently available research may be more appropriate for catching students up with remedial instruction than for class-wide initial instruction. CTESS OTR benchmarks, although lower than the optimal rates suggested by research, are based on CSD’s normative data, across elementary, middle, and high schools, and across subject areas. Standard 6: Feedback Feedback is among the most impactful instructional elements on student learning (Hattie, 2009). Feedback is most effective when it is frequent, has clearly defined goals, and when it points the way toward the next steps for improvement. Ideally feedback should flow in two directions: Feedback should flow from teachers to students, so students can correct/improve responses; and feedback should flow from students to teachers, so teachers can make instructional adjustments. Feedback Sequence . Feedback sequences involve a student response, a follow-up teacher query, a student correction or enhancement of that response, and a teacher providing the student with positive feedback on the improved response. Feedback sequences are recommended by many teaching experts (e.g., see correction procedures in Archer & Hughes, 2011, p. 180). Using feedback sequences to correct student errors or to refine or expand student responses has been shown to improve learning rates and motivation in the context of Applied Behavior Analysis (Alberto & Troutman, 2017). Feedback sequences perform several important functions: • allow students to demonstrate success and to receive positive acknowledgement for their success • promote an environment in which every student is held accountable to learn the material being taught and where no student is allowed a pass on learning • create a safe learning environment where students can attempt answers and learn from mistakes • correct student errors quickly and efficiently so that they are not continually practiced • may allow students practice in figuring out how to think through a quality answer to challenging questions • allow the ratio of positive to corrective feedback to remain high, even when a significant number of corrections are made

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